Foundation and history
While Instructional Technology (IT) has been defined and redefined in many ways over the past several decades, the most generally accepted definition was described by the Association of Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) in 2008 as this: “Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning”. Instructional Technology (IT) is sometimes called Educational Technology, or Technology for Education. As technology has evolved, it is logical that the definition of IT would evolve with it. Technology has changed dramatically over time, from prehistoric cave paintings demonstrating how to hunt prey for food, to books printed with moveable type, to audio on the old Victrola record player, to motion pictures without sound, to digital televisions with videos, sound, closed-captioning, and elaborate menus, to Internet Webinars, and to world-wide satellite audio/visual/data broadcasts. Yet, contemporary educational technologies, with which we are more familiar, began around World War II, when film projections with sound started to be used for military training.
https://www.google.com/search?q=timeline+of+educational+technology&client=firefox-b-1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXwr3i_tHZAhUD8IMKHfIuAL8Q_AUICigB&biw=1102&bih=779&dpr=1.25#imgrc=n7TWB2kjtTSUpM:
The Evolutional Journey of Instructional Technology--a Recap
In the 1950s, instructional television was introduced—it was one-way communication
In the 1960's and into 1970s, college degrees were being offered in Instructional Technology
In the 1980s the systems approach was getting recognition for Instructional Technology and Instructional Design
In the mid-1990s more personal computers were commonplace and the Internet more available to the general population—this allows for two-way communication
In the 1950s, instructional television was introduced—it was one-way communication
In the 1960's and into 1970s, college degrees were being offered in Instructional Technology
In the 1980s the systems approach was getting recognition for Instructional Technology and Instructional Design
In the mid-1990s more personal computers were commonplace and the Internet more available to the general population—this allows for two-way communication
The most notable learning theories are: Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.
“Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced” (http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/). This theory was introduced in the 1960s and was considered easy to understand since it is based on observation. The subjects’ behavior could be so noted in this manner. Was it positive or negative behavior which was important to the study. Are the participants receiving rewards for good behaviors or punishment for bad behavior?
The congnitivists refute behaviorism in this way, ”people are not 'programmed animals' that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking” (https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html). Cognitivists are realizing that the mind needs to be awaken to new ideas. These people like the challenge of applying critical thinking to solve problems. Their environment is important and needs to be addressed. They gather information to use when they deem appropriate.
It is important to distinguish between constructivism and constructionism. Constructivism is more cognitive and cerebral than constructionism, which is more physical in nature. “Constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it” (https://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html). With CTE students, this active way of learning is ideal for them. They much prefer to participate than just listen to a lecture. The constructivist students retain knowledge gained from personal experience while solving problems using critical thinking. Some consider constructionism to be more of an educational method than a theory. It is said of Seymour Papert, who is credited with this method, that, “He believes that students will be more deeply involved in their learning if they are constructing something that others will see, critique, and perhaps use” (http://guzdial.cc.gatech.edu/Commentary/construct.html).
“Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced” (http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/). This theory was introduced in the 1960s and was considered easy to understand since it is based on observation. The subjects’ behavior could be so noted in this manner. Was it positive or negative behavior which was important to the study. Are the participants receiving rewards for good behaviors or punishment for bad behavior?
The congnitivists refute behaviorism in this way, ”people are not 'programmed animals' that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking” (https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html). Cognitivists are realizing that the mind needs to be awaken to new ideas. These people like the challenge of applying critical thinking to solve problems. Their environment is important and needs to be addressed. They gather information to use when they deem appropriate.
It is important to distinguish between constructivism and constructionism. Constructivism is more cognitive and cerebral than constructionism, which is more physical in nature. “Constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it” (https://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html). With CTE students, this active way of learning is ideal for them. They much prefer to participate than just listen to a lecture. The constructivist students retain knowledge gained from personal experience while solving problems using critical thinking. Some consider constructionism to be more of an educational method than a theory. It is said of Seymour Papert, who is credited with this method, that, “He believes that students will be more deeply involved in their learning if they are constructing something that others will see, critique, and perhaps use” (http://guzdial.cc.gatech.edu/Commentary/construct.html).
https://www.bhten.com/planning-instructional-design
The historical evolution of the field contains these milestones and people:
In the 40’s, psychologist and educator, Robert Gagne, conducted research on teaching and learning during World War II (WWII). Military training materials were based on that work. Methods and assessment strategies developed for the military were entering the mainstream of education, and Instructional Technology gained momentum in the arena of teaching and learning.
In the 50’s, B.F. Skinner researched Operant Conditioning (stimulus and response). From that came programmed instruction, behavior objectives, self-paced learning, and more. The responsibility for learning shifted from the teacher to the students. And, in 1956, Bloom’s Taxonomy was developed, which has been used by educators ever since then. Because of the Russian Sputnik launch in October of 1957, our Federal government wanted not to be left behind in the space-race, thus pumped millions of dollars into instructional development for improving math and science education in schools nationwide.
In the 60’s, Robert Gagne was a giant among researcher/educators. Gagne came on the scene when WWII was in full swing, and military training became a national priority. Many changes to IT happened because of his work that involved instructional principles, human behavior, human learning, and instructional theory that was developed. He identified the five categories of learning: (1) motor skills; (2) attitudes; (3) verbal information processing; (4) intellectual skills and (5) cognitive learning. He also described the necessary Conditions for Learning, his nine events of instruction as follows: (1) gaining the attention of the learner; (2) communicating objectives; (3) reflect on previous learning; (4) stimulate current thought; (5) giving guidance to each learner; (6) challenging performance; (7) giving feedback quickly; (8) assessing learning that took place; and (9) along with bringing about memory retention and transportability to other contexts. (http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/IT_history.htm)
In the 40’s, psychologist and educator, Robert Gagne, conducted research on teaching and learning during World War II (WWII). Military training materials were based on that work. Methods and assessment strategies developed for the military were entering the mainstream of education, and Instructional Technology gained momentum in the arena of teaching and learning.
In the 50’s, B.F. Skinner researched Operant Conditioning (stimulus and response). From that came programmed instruction, behavior objectives, self-paced learning, and more. The responsibility for learning shifted from the teacher to the students. And, in 1956, Bloom’s Taxonomy was developed, which has been used by educators ever since then. Because of the Russian Sputnik launch in October of 1957, our Federal government wanted not to be left behind in the space-race, thus pumped millions of dollars into instructional development for improving math and science education in schools nationwide.
In the 60’s, Robert Gagne was a giant among researcher/educators. Gagne came on the scene when WWII was in full swing, and military training became a national priority. Many changes to IT happened because of his work that involved instructional principles, human behavior, human learning, and instructional theory that was developed. He identified the five categories of learning: (1) motor skills; (2) attitudes; (3) verbal information processing; (4) intellectual skills and (5) cognitive learning. He also described the necessary Conditions for Learning, his nine events of instruction as follows: (1) gaining the attention of the learner; (2) communicating objectives; (3) reflect on previous learning; (4) stimulate current thought; (5) giving guidance to each learner; (6) challenging performance; (7) giving feedback quickly; (8) assessing learning that took place; and (9) along with bringing about memory retention and transportability to other contexts. (http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/IT_history.htm)
https://www.teachthought.com/learning/a-visual-primer-o-learning-theory/
B.F. Skinner is a name that echoed back in many of my previous education courses at CSUSB. He was an advocate of Operant Conditioning (stimulus/response/reinforcement), behavioral engineering and programmed instruction, and invented the “teaching machine”. He was a proponent of small elements of learning, along with expedited feedback of student assessment test results. According to Skinner, “Behaviorism is not the science of human behavior; it is the philosophy of that science” (http://hackeducation.com/2015/02/10/skinners-box). Thomas Gilbert, who was a psychologist who studied under Skinner, coined the term and developed the area known as Performance Engineering Management theory, that built on Skinner's ideas for motivating people to become more productive. According to McGowan, (2017) “The essence of Thomas Gilbert's theory for engineering worthy performance is that workers need to have the right information, the right resources and the right incentives.” (https://www.business.com/articles/management-theory-of-thomas-gilbert).
David Merrill, in 2002, identified his five Instructional Design (ID) principles to enhance learning in these phases: (1) including problem-solving; (2) activate memory recall; (3) demonstrate to learners, rather than only by lecture; (4) apply new knowledge to new problems; (5) project the new knowledge into future problem solving opportunities (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/Merrill.html). Merrill's Component Display Theory breaks down learning primarily into Presentation and Content, which are further broken down into smaller and smaller elements that are meant to encode his interpretation of teaching and learning (http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/component-display.html).
David Merrill, in 2002, identified his five Instructional Design (ID) principles to enhance learning in these phases: (1) including problem-solving; (2) activate memory recall; (3) demonstrate to learners, rather than only by lecture; (4) apply new knowledge to new problems; (5) project the new knowledge into future problem solving opportunities (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/Merrill.html). Merrill's Component Display Theory breaks down learning primarily into Presentation and Content, which are further broken down into smaller and smaller elements that are meant to encode his interpretation of teaching and learning (http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/component-display.html).
REFLECTIONS on ETEC-500, EDUC-603 & 605
ETEC-500 is the Foundation in Instructional Education course. This was an introduction to electronic media, information technology, and networks for education. This course really got into the nuts and bolts, wires and electronic systems aimed at supporting education. Below, is my final examination for ETEC-500.
etec-500_ggg_final_exam_12-8-13.pdf |
EDUC-603 is about communications. It concentrates on interpersonal relationships in our lives, and the importance they play in education. I chose to to critique verbal and non-verbal communications in the movie, Mr. Holland's Opus, as the focus of my final paper, and pointed out the significant communication events that occurred throughout. See my paper for more details, below.
educ603_ggg_final_paper_v9.doc |
EDUC-605 is the Foundation of Education course. It covers the early history of education, from ancient times, up to the present. It covers a multitude of topic areas that have shaped educational trends today. I chose to write a final paper that covered a spectrum of ideas that have influenced the California Community Colleges, especially the one where I teach. I expanded on quotes from our textbook by likening those quotes to my personal experiences as a college teacher. That final paper is below for your reference.
ggg_final_e605_report--ideas_influencing_cccs.v9.pdf |
References
http://arcmit01.uncw.edu/erg1602/Definition.pdf)
http://guzdial.cc.gatech.edu/Commentary/construct.html
http://hackeducation.com/2015/02/10/skinners-box
https://www.bhten.com/planning-instructional-design
https://www.business.com/articles/management-theory-of-thomas-gilbert
http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/
https://www.google.com/search?q=timeline+of+educational+technology&client=firefox-b-1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXwr3i_tHZAhUD8IMKHfIuAL8Q_AUICigB&biw=1102&bih=779&dpr=1.25#imgrc=n7TWB2kjtTSUpM:
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/component-display.html
https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html
https://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/Merrill.html
http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/IT_history.htm
https://www.teachthought.com/learning/a-visual-primer-o-learning-theory/
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/20045/instructional-technology
http://arcmit01.uncw.edu/erg1602/Definition.pdf)
http://guzdial.cc.gatech.edu/Commentary/construct.html
http://hackeducation.com/2015/02/10/skinners-box
https://www.bhten.com/planning-instructional-design
https://www.business.com/articles/management-theory-of-thomas-gilbert
http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/
https://www.google.com/search?q=timeline+of+educational+technology&client=firefox-b-1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXwr3i_tHZAhUD8IMKHfIuAL8Q_AUICigB&biw=1102&bih=779&dpr=1.25#imgrc=n7TWB2kjtTSUpM:
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/component-display.html
https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html
https://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/Merrill.html
http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/IT_history.htm
https://www.teachthought.com/learning/a-visual-primer-o-learning-theory/
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/20045/instructional-technology